This is the third report as required under the federal First Step Act of 2018. The report includes data on federal prisoners provided to U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics by the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) for calendar year 2020. The First Step Act has three major components: (1) correctional reform via the establishment of a risk and needs assessment system at the Federal Bureau of Prisons, (2) sentencing reform via changes to penalties for some federal offenses, and (3) the reauthorization of the Second Chance Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-199). Additionally, the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics is required to report on selected characteristics of persons in prison, including marital, veteran, citizenship, and English-speaking status; education levels; medical conditions; and participation in treatment programs. The U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics is also required to report facility-level statistics, such as the number of assaults on staff by prisoners, prisoners’ violations of rules that resulted in time credit reductions, and selected facility characteristics related to accreditation, on-site health care, remote learning, video conferencing, and costs of prisoners’ phone calls. This report finds that the federal prison population decreased 13%, from 174,391 at year-end 2019 to 151,283 at year-end 2020. In 2020, a total of 14,791 persons held in federal prison participated in a non-residential drug abuse program, 10,868 in a residential drug abuse program, and 1,268 in a treatment challenge program for a substance use disorder. Additionally, a total of 418 federal prisoners received medication-assisted treatment (approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration) to treat a substance use disorder.

Incarceration is definitively linked to poor health, and upon release from prison, many individuals have difficulty in maintaining good health. Given the complexity of the reentry process, one's health status, both in and out of prison, likely influences additional aspects of reentry, such as abstaining from crime or adhering to parole terms. This current study uses the Serious and Violent Reentry Initiative (SVORI) data, a multi-state sample of formerly incarcerated males who were followed from prison to release into the community and interviewed about a number of post-prison release issues, including health. The study uses hierarchical logistic and multinomial regressions in which survey waves were nested within people to assess whether in-prison physical and mental health and post-release changes to health were associated with recidivism in two ways: general re-incarceration and re-incarceration due to either a technical violation of parole or a new conviction. The analysis found that better physical health, both in-prison and changes in health post-release, was related to a higher likelihood of recidivating. Better mental health, both in-prison and changes to mental health post-release, were related to a decrease in the likelihood of recidivating. Individuals with poor mental health in prison who made significant improvements after release had the largest reduction in their odds of recidivating. Finally, the combination of better mental health in prison and increases in mental health post-release were associated with reductions in the likelihood of re-offending for both technical violations and new convictions. In sum, in-prison health continued to influence individuals after prison and was associated with their odds of recidivating, thus contributing to the churning of individuals through the prison system.

Crisis stabilization units (CSUs) offer law enforcement officers and mobile crisis teams a safe place to bring people in behavioral health crisis, often in lieu of arrest or emergency hospitalization. Licensing and regulatory requirements differ by state, but in general, CSUs provide immediate access to care for people in crisis and connect them to the most appropriate supportive services for ongoing care in the community. However, they can be challenging to establish without the appropriate funding and support from key partners needed to operate the units effectively. Creating buy-in among referral sources, is one important component of achieving this support needed. This brief offers crisis stabilization unit leaders three best practices for collaborating with referral sources to ensure its success, including (1) understanding the landscape of local referral sources, (2) fostering effective partnerships with referral sources, and (3) being flexible to meet the needs of referral sources.

This report presents data on public elementary and secondary education revenues and expenditures at the local education agency or school district level for federal Fiscal Year 2019. Specifically, this report includes finance data on the following topics: 1) Current expenditure totals and current expenditure per pupil amounts by state as well as for the 100 largest school districts; 2) Federal, state, and local revenues for the 100 largest school districts; 3) Median revenues per pupil and median current expenditures per pupil by geographic region and locale; 4) Current expenditure totals and current expenditure per pupil amounts by activity (e.g., instruction, support services) and specific expenditure (e.g., salaries and wages, employee benefits), by state and for the two largest school districts in each state; 5) Federal revenues received by school districts, by program and state; 6) Local revenues by source, by state; and 7) Capital outlay expenditures by state. In this report, the Miami-Dade County Public School District is listed as the nation’s fourth largest district (in terms of total student membership) and had revenues per pupil increase by 1.5% from Fiscal Year 2018 ($10,983 per pupil) to Fiscal Year 2019 ($11,150 per pupil).

Hostile behaviors, including bullying, harassment, hate speech and hate crimes, or other types of victimization like sexual assault and rape, in schools can negatively affect K-12 students' short- and long-term mental health, education, income, and overall well-being. This report examines (1) the prevalence and nature of hostile behaviors in K-12 public schools; (2) the presence of K-12 school programs and practices to address hostile behaviors; and (3) how the U.S. Department of Education has addressed complaints related to these issues in school years 2010-11 through 2019-20. The authors found that about one in five students aged 12 to 18 were bullied annually in school years 2014-15, 2016-17, and 2018-19. Of students who were bullied in school year 2018-19, about one in four students experienced bullying related to their race, national origin, religion, disability, gender, or sexual orientation. About one in four of all students aged 12 to 18 saw hate words or symbols written in their schools, such as homophobic slurs and references to lynching. Most hostile behaviors also increased in school year 2017-18, according to the authors’ analysis of the school survey. Hate crimes—which most commonly targeted students because of their race and national origin—and physical attacks with a weapon nearly doubled. Sexual assaults also increased during the same period. Nearly every school used programs or practices to address hostile behaviors, and schools' adoption of them increased from school year 2015-16 to 2017-18. About 18,000 more schools implemented social emotional learning and about 1,200 more used in-school suspensions. The U.S. Department of Education resolved complaints of hostile behaviors faster in recent years, due in part to more complaints being dismissed and fewer complaints being filed. In the 2019-20 school year, 81% of such resolved complaints were dismissed, most commonly because the department's Office for Civil Rights did not receive consent to disclose the complainant's identity to those they filed the complaint against.

Secondary career and technical education (CTE) has drawn increased attention from policymakers over the past several years. States have sought ways to connect secondary CTE to future learning and careers. As research demonstrates benefits to CTE and career exploration, state policymakers have placed greater emphasis on expanding opportunities and connecting work-based learning opportunities with CTE. In addition to elevating and supporting work-based learning, states have put greater emphasis on programs that provide opportunities for students to engage in learning outside of a secondary setting. In the 2021 legislative sessions, lawmakers in 46 states introduced at least 315 bills concerning CTE, and many prioritized experiential and work-based learning opportunities; funding for CTE programming; increasing student awareness of CTE offerings; and a focus on cross-agency collaboration and industry involvement. This report includes details from eight legislative examples, in addition to providing a list of legislation enacted this year in each state. A Florida bill, Senate Bill 366 - Educational Opportunities Leading to Employment, from the 2021 legislative session is listed in the report.

This report summarizes findings from a study in which the authors examined postsecondary college transcript and degree records from hundreds of thousands of transfer-intending community college students in three states (states are not named in the study). The aim was to explore and test metrics that could be useful in the formative assessment of efforts to improve STEM transfer outcomes. The findings show that first-year completion of a calculus course and first-year completion of a (non-math) science, technology, or engineering course specified on statewide STEM transfer pathways are both reliable indicators of subsequent STEM transfer success across a wide range of state and institutional contexts. These two metrics are also robust predictors of success among subgroups of students by race/ethnicity and gender. In general, community colleges have relatively low rates of completion of these key STEM courses, and disparities in completion of these courses by race/ethnicity and gender are common. The STEM momentum metrics identified in the study may therefore be useful for colleges seeking to strengthen STEM transfer outcomes and close equity gaps in STEM bachelor’s degree attainment.

The Point-in-Time count is a nationwide count of people experiencing homelessness on a single night, conducted by Continuums of Care—local planning bodies that coordinate homelessness services. This count is count is a key tool for estimating the size of the U.S. homeless population. However, developing an accurate understanding of the extent of homelessness is challenging due to the hidden nature of the population. The authors were asked to review the Point-in-Time (PIT) count and alternative methods for estimating the size of homeless populations. This report (1) examines communities' approaches for counting people experiencing homelessness and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development’s (HUD) guidance for using these approaches, (2) describes approaches used by selected foreign countries to estimate their homeless populations, and (3) describes what is known about funding sources and resources expended by selected communities in conducing the PIT count. The U.S. Point-in-Time count is similar to Canada's and England's approaches in that they are nationally administered and localities can choose among various approved methods to conduct in-person local counts. Of the 41 Continuums of Care examined, 31 used HUD funds, 19 used state or local funds, and 10 used private donations (often in combination with government funds). All 41 Continuums of Care reported using volunteers to complete their Point-in-Time counts, with large cities using the most volunteer hours. Respondents reported an average of 4.8 work hours (paid staff and volunteers) for every person counted in their PIT count of unsheltered individuals. HUD does not provide Continuums of Care with examples of how to extract and use administrative data for the unsheltered count. By doing so, HUD could help improve the quality and consistency of Continuums of Care ' estimates and position Continuums of Care to provide better estimates, particularly if in-person counts are again disrupted, as they were in 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Rising housing costs have become an increasingly salient political issue for state-level elected officials across the United States. Local governments have traditionally exerted the most direct control over land use and housing production, yet political and fiscal incentives align to pressure local officials into restricting new development, especially of moderately priced homes. However, state governments are increasingly feeling the pinch of poorly functioning housing markets in several ways. Inadequate supply, especially in near job centers and transportation infrastructure, makes it harder for companies to recruit and retain workers. Most new housing is developed on the urban fringe in car-dependent locations, leading to higher traffic volumes and more greenhouse gas emissions. Exclusionary zoning by affluent, high-opportunity communities restricts economic mobility and exacerbates racial and economic segregation. In short, the economic, social, and environmental costs of poorly functioning housing markets spill over beyond local boundaries to affect entire regions and states. State-level action has the potential to improve these outcomes. This report identifies four broad goals to guide statewide housing policies and examines the housing market policies in place in California, Massachusetts, Oregon, Utah, and Virginia. The four recommended goals are 1) analyze housing market conditions; 2) encourage housing production in places with strong market demand; 3) provide financial support to low-income households; and 4) reduce climate risks.

This report recommends a shift in approach to developing public sector leaders and teams, and emphasizes on-the job approaches that address existing gender inequalities and that incorporate coaching, experiential learning, and peer learning. It makes the case that this effort will pay dividends as teams of civil servants become more effective and efficient, which in turn will attract new talent to public service. To be effective in the 21st century, leaders need to develop new approaches to tackling the challenges they face and the opportunities that present themselves. They need to consider the novel context in which they find themselves and draw on acquired competencies – including leading through change, embracing ambiguity and uncertainty, constantly innovating, and engaging with multiple stakeholders. These skills are rarely taught in traditional leadership and management programs, and when they are, the approach is often theoretical and abstract. Current public sector leadership and management training tends to rely on teaching methods that emphasize knowledge transfer over behavior change. These theoretical approaches often overlook skills that future leaders will need. Also, training programs are typically only offered to senior leaders, and focus on individuals rather than teams and organizations. For changes to happen at an institutional level, training must move beyond individualistic approaches. This report provides examples of different approaches to developing a pipeline of leadership in the public sector.

It is estimated that at least 2.8 million antibacterial and antifungal-resistant infections occur each year in the United States, and more than 35,000 people die as a result, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The development of new antibacterial and antifungal treatments is one strategy to address the threat of antimicrobial resistance. The federal 21st Century Cures Act, enacted in 2016, established limited population pathway for antibacterial and antifungal drugs (LPAD) to help facilitate the approval of certain antibacterial and antifungal drugs. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration oversees the approval of such drugs. The authors found that review of U.S. Food and Drug Administration documentation shows that since LPAD was established in 2016, drug developers have formally requested approval under LPAD for four drugs, two of which were approved. LPAD's effect on the drug pipeline could be limited because the pathway does not address the economic challenges facing the development of these products. For example, according to stakeholders, given the limited market for such drugs, sales revenue can be insufficient to cover development costs, making it difficult for companies to survive in the antibacterial and antifungal drug market. In March 2020, GAO reported on similar challenges and recommended that the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services develop a strategy to further incentivize the development of new treatments for antibiotic-resistant infections, including the use of post-market financial incentives, which could include rewards for market entry or reimbursement reform.

The authors study a 2008 policy reform in which Medicare revised its hospital payment system to better reflect patients' severity of illness. The authors construct a simulated instrument that predicts a hospital's policy-induced change in reimbursement using pre-reform patients and post-reform rules. Findings indicate that the reform led to large persistent changes in Medicare payment rates across hospitals. Hospitals that faced larger gains in Medicare reimbursement increased the volume of Medicare patients they treated. The estimates imply a volume elasticity of 1.2. To accommodate greater volume, hospitals increased nurse employment, but also lowered length of stay, with ambiguous effects on quality.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Summer Meals Study is a nationally representative study of summer meal program sites, program participants, and program nonparticipants. This study employed a mixed-methods design using data from the Summer 2018 USDA Summer Meals Study Caregiver Survey to address research objectives focused on participation, food quality, and implementation of the summer meal programs. Approximately 4,690 participant and nonparticipant caregivers participated in data collection activities; participation varied by study instrument. Nonparticipant caregivers were in households with children that lived in the geographic area surrounding the site, but none of their children went to the summer meal program site. Results presented in this report volume are primarily based on an analysis of data collected from surveys that were administered to program participants and nonparticipants and their caregivers. Spatial analysis is used to estimate national program coverage. In addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with a subset of participant and nonparticipant caregivers. Findings indicate that nearly 80% of children in low-income households live within one mile of an urban summer meals site or within 10 miles of a rural site. However, although the majority of children living in low-income households live near a Summer Meals Program site, most do not participate. Overall, 45% of households with children living near a summer meals site are food insecure, which is higher than the 14% of households with children who are food insecure nationally. Further, household food insecurity is significantly higher for summer meal program participants than for non-participants (49% and 44%, respectively).