This report presents statistics on deaths that occur during federal arrest, detention, and incarceration in the United States in 2021. It is the fourth in a series in response to the Death in Custody Reporting Act (DCRA) of 2013 (P.L. 113–242) that requires federal law enforcement agencies to report information about the death of any person who dies while detained, under arrest, being arrested, or in the custody of federal law enforcement officers. The report found that accidents accounted for the largest portion (40%) of arrest-related deaths in Fiscal Year 2021, followed by homicides (32%) and suicides (23%). About 89% of decedents in arrest-related deaths were male, 73% were White, and 65% were ages 25 to 44. In 44% of arrest-related deaths, law enforcement was serving a warrant when they made initial contact with the decedent. An immigration violation was the most serious offense allegedly committed by decedents in 46% of arrest-related deaths. Sixteen prisoners were received under sentence of death in 2021, one more than was reported in 2020. Twenty states and the Federal Bureau of Prisons removed a total of 84 prisoners from under sentence of death by means other than execution in 2021.

This report presents statistics on prisoners who were under sentence of death in 2021, a summary of state and federal death penalty laws in 2021, and historical trends in executions. The report found that during 2021, the number of prisoners under sentence of death declined for the 21st consecutive year. A total of 16 prisoners were received under sentence of death in 2021, one more than was reported in 2020. Twenty states and the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) removed a total of 84 prisoners from under sentence of death by means other than execution in 2021. Among jurisdictions with prisoners under sentence of death at yearend 2021, 19 states and the BOP reported a decrease in the number of prisoners held under sentence of death, 8 states reported no change, and no states reported an increase in the number of prisoners held under sentence of death. Four states held no prisoners under sentence of death during 2021.

This brief details findings from a national survey conducted in 2023 by The Council of State Governments Justice Center, Center for Juvenile Justice Reform at Georgetown University’s McCourt School of Public Policy, and University of Cincinnati Corrections Institute, as well as listening sessions with juvenile justice agencies across the country, which reveal the scope and consequences of the juvenile justice system staffing crisis. The survey results indicated that the majority of agencies were facing greater difficulties hiring and retaining staff than at any time in the past 5 to 10 years. Three key findings from the survey included: (1) front-line staff hiring and retention challenges are severe and multifaceted nationwide; (2) the causes for this staffing crisis are also multifaceted and don’t allow for easy or quick fixes; and (3) the consequences of the staffing crisis are far reaching, impacting all aspects of juvenile justice operations, supervision, and service delivery. Additionally, the authors note that over 60% of respondents reported that their state leaders are aware of the severity of their staffing challenges; however, less than 10% believe that their state has a clear strategy to address this crisis. The briefing also includes key considerations for policymakers addressing juvenile justice staffing instability, such as strategically plan and invest in the service settings, providers, and programs that can promote not just better outcomes for youth but also for the professionals who do this work.

Fraud poses a significant threat to the integrity of federal programs and erodes public trust in government. Proactively managing fraud risks can help ensure that taxpayer dollars serve their intended purposes. In October 2022, the federal Department of Education launched a student loan debt relief program that would provide up to $20,000 in relief to borrowers who had incomes below certain thresholds. Court orders caused the department to cease work on the program before discharging any debt, and in June 2023 the Supreme Court struck down the program. Little was known about how the department planned to prevent fraud. This report examines the extent to which department policies and procedures mitigated fraud risk in the relief program at the time the department ceased work on it. The authors analyzed documentation of department’s fraud risk assessments, assumptions, and procedures for verifying borrower income eligibility; interviewed department officials with knowledge of the debt relief program and fraud risk management; and assessed the department's efforts against federal internal control standards related to fraud risk management and leading practices. Researchers found that the department quickly approved borrowers for debt relief without applying key practices to prevent fraud. For example, the department didn't verify certain borrowers' self-reported income before approving them for relief. The report makes three recommendations to the department if it pursues future debt relief, including to incorporate evaluations of fraud risk management before providing relief, implement all stages of its fraud risk management, and implement controls to avoid relying on self-reported data.

The high costs of postsecondary education and subsequent student debt levels have garnered significant attention from policymakers and media coverage. While non-degree programs are typically shorter and less expensive than traditional degree programs, program cost still creates barriers, particularly for working adults who may also forgo earning potential while completing the credential program. A 2023 survey from Gallup and Lumina Foundation found that program cost is the largest reason why students are not enrolled in a degree or credential program. Program cost for non-degree credentials can differ from traditional costs associated with a bachelor’s or associate degree. Many programs require work-based learning or certification exams which can range widely in cost. Additionally, most short-term programs are not eligible for Federal Pell grants, although numerous legislative proposals have been considered to expand Pell eligibility to include additional short-term programs. While navigating these dynamics, learners in these programs, who are often adult students, may also navigate costs beyond tuition and program expenses, such as childcare, housing, transportation, and food. States continue to expand financial aid programs that aim to alleviate workforce shortages and boost graduates in high-demand professions as well as supporting adult learners. State policymakers have also created new financial aid programs designed to promote non-degree credential offerings and training such as upskilling and employer trainings.

Schools everywhere are grappling with the lasting legacies of the pandemic: students lost valuable learning time and are still missing school at high rates. Educators, working overtime to help students catch up, are feeling the strain of these twin challenges. During the pandemic, the average U.S. public school student lost the equivalent of half a year of learning in math and a quarter of a year in reading on state tests. Most estimates indicate that young people have not changed their learning trajectory enough to catch up to where they were pre-pandemic. This unfinished learning could cost the average American student upwards of $70,000 in lifetime earnings. In 2023, student absenteeism is at an all-time high. Chronic absenteeism—missing at least 10% of the school year—has increased in every state since 2019, sometimes doubling or even tripling its pre-pandemic rate. This is deeply concerning. Students who miss more days at school have lower academic achievement and are more likely to drop out of high school. Significant absenteeism now affects more than one in four American children. Educators believe that pandemic-era challenges are largely past and that their kids are already on grade level or will catch up soon. How can educators and families have such a different read of the same situation? To understand the extent of this disconnect, researchers partnered with two public school districts to analyze the pandemic’s effect on student absences, learning, and grades. The authors were particularly interested in students who are both chronically absent and behind academically, as they and their families are most in need of clear signals so they can support their children to correct course. Here are the findings: in both districts, between 2018-19 and 2021-22: (1) Student achievement fell. The average student is five months further behind in math and English Language Arts (ELA); (2) Chronic absenteeism skyrocketed. Students are missing one to two more weeks of school, on average; (3) Yet most students still earned the same grade—or better—in 2022 as they did in 2019; (4) The number of students not yet on grade level and chronically absent quadrupled. Yet more than 40% of these students still earn B’s or better in core subjects. In other words, grades are sending signals that students are doing well at a time when there is serious reason for concern. Before the pandemic, it was relatively rare for students to be both not yet on grade level and chronically absent. Even if kids were behind, they were in class. But now, absences are compounding a performance challenge— and many families are unaware there’s an issue. Educators aren’t intentionally trying to mislead families. Assessing learning was extra challenging during remote schooling, and grades reflect more than just academic performance. Teachers also consider factors like participation and effort. But when kids regularly miss school, they may struggle to participate in class or complete their assignments—the very things that would contribute to earning a B grade. Unfortunately, too many report cards are sending false signals. Many families, trusting the information they’ve been given, simply aren’t aware that their students may be behind. The solution goes beyond grades. This isn’t just about assigning more C’s and D’s. It’s about an urgent need to identify and help the students most in need of personalized systems of support. Families need help in getting their kids to school and to help school systems to share a more realistic picture of students’ performance, especially when young people are below grade level.

Home-based work has long played a role in the functioning of the U.S. economy. The initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic provided a new catalyst for the expansion of home-based work, as the initial push for social distancing compelled many people to work from home. According to the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), the percentage of U.S. jobs worked on-site or in person decreased by roughly 10% between 2019 and 2021, from about 84% to 74% of all jobs. The expansion of working from home since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically changed how U.S. workers relate to their jobs and workplaces. Because the SIPP collects uniquely detailed information about respondents’ jobs, it is particularly well-suited to describe changes in home-based work. This brief identifies overall trends in home-based work, including the share of jobs worked on-site, at home, and a mix of both; presents key work schedule characteristics associated with each type of job; and provides an outline of how type of job varies by class of work, industry, and occupation.

This report describes the changes to the demographics of the federal workforce during fiscal years 2011 through 2021 in terms of race, ethnicity, age, gender, and disability. The authors analyzed federal workforce data from the federal Office of Personnel Management’s Enterprise Human Resources Integration database for Fiscal Years 2011 through 2021—the most recent data available at the time of the analysis. From Fiscal Years 2011 through 2021 there have been minor increases in representation in the federal workforce of people who are Black or African American, Asian, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, American Indian or Alaska Native, and persons of more than one race. Overall, in Fiscal Year 2021, representation for historically disadvantaged racial groups in the federal workforce was higher than in the 2021 civilian labor force. The percentage of Hispanic employees in the federal workforce increased by 1.4% from Fiscal Year 2011 to 2021. However, in Fiscal Year 2021 federal representation of Hispanic employees was below the civilian labor force. Also during Fiscal Year 2011 to 2021, the proportion of women in the federal workforce remained relatively stable, but in Fiscal Year 2021, their representation was less than the civilian labor force. During Fiscal Year 2011 to 2021, the representation of persons with disabilities in the federal workforce doubled and was about three times that of the representation in the Fiscal Year 2021 civilian labor force. Additionally, men and women in each historically disadvantaged racial group and White women made positive gains in Senior Executive Service positions from Fiscal Years 2011 to 2021 (with the exception of the Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander group). Historically disadvantaged groups were generally hired, promoted, and separated at higher rates in Fiscal Year 2021 than in Fiscal Year 2011.

Data from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System document the prevalence of bullying experiences, on school property and electronically, reported by high school students. This analysis of the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data shows that bullying on school property declined between 2011 and 2021 while bullying electronically remained stable. High school females were more likely than males to report bullying experiences. High school freshmen were more likely than juniors and seniors to report being bullied on school property. White, American Indian/Alaska Native, and youth of more than one race were equally likely to report bullying experiences. Students who identify as heterosexual were less likely to report bullying experiences than their non-heterosexual peers.

This report examines whether hospital characteristics associated with better patient experiences overall are also associated with smaller racial-and-ethnic disparities in inpatient experience. The authors found that while hospitals serving larger proportions of Black and Hispanic patients scored lower on all measures, racial-and-ethnic disparities were generally smaller for Black and Hispanic patients who received care from hospitals serving higher proportions of patients in their racial-and-ethnic group. Experiences overall were better in smaller and non-profit hospitals, but racial-and-ethnic differences were slightly larger. Large, for-profit hospitals and hospitals serving higher proportions of Black and Hispanic patients tend to be lower performing overall but have smaller disparities in patient experience. High-performing hospitals might look at low-performing hospitals for how to provide less disparate care whereas low-performing hospitals may look to high-performing hospitals for how to improve patient experience overall.

This study examines the national trends of revenue, profit, and labor cost among general acute hospitals from 2011 to 2021. Using data from the National Academy for State Health Policy’s (NASHP) Hospital Cost Tool, the authors found that despite rising labor and other operating costs, hospitals largely achieved record profits in 2020 and 2021, supported by federal payment policy changes and funding support in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. During this period, hospitals’ labor costs for patient care per adjusted discharge grew by 18% nationally. Additionally, contract labor costs, as a share of hospitals’ labor costs for patient care, doubled from 3% in 2019 to 6% in 2021, which was driven by both increased FTEs and hourly rates for contract staff. Overall, compared with 2019 levels, 2021 hospital operating costs increased 10%, with about 3% attributed to labor costs and 7% attributed to other operating costs. Patient care labor costs increased 9%, with 3% attributed to contract staff and 6% to hospital-employed staff.